F — Bible Interpretation

The Targum of Leviticus (4Q156)

1Fr. 1 And he (Aaron) shall take some [of the blood of the bull and sprinkle it with his finger o]n the mercy seat. And before the mercy seat - to the east - [he shall sprinkle fr]om the blood with his finger [seven times] (Lev. xvi, 14).... Fr. 2 ... Whe[n he has made an end of atoning] for the House of Holiness [and for] the tent of meeting and [for the altar, he shall offer] a live goat (Lev. xvi, 20)....

Appendix (A) GREEK BIBLE TRANSLATIONS (4Q119-22;)

1(A) GREEK BIBLE TRANSLATIONS (4Q119-22; 7Q1-2) Compared to the quantity of Hebrew and Aramaic manuscripts, the Greek documents found in two of the Qumran caves, Caves 4 and 7, are remarkably few, and this scarcity is significant in itself as regards the cultural identity of the Qumran Community. Those which have been identified with certainty belong to the Greek translation of the Bible, mostly the Pentateuch. Cave 4 has yielded remains of two scrolls of Leviticus, one of leather (4Q119) and one of papyrus (4Q120), as well as one of Numbers (4Q121) and of Deuteronomy (4Q122), all dating to the second or the first century BCE. On the whole, they represent the traditional text of the Septuagint with minor variations such as a word being replaced by its synonym (harvesting by threshing, for example, or nation by people), but 4QLXX Numbers (4Q121) testifies to an effort to bring the LXX closer to the Hebrew Pentateuch. Since the translation scarcely differs from the original, there is no purpose in reproducing it. However, it is worth noting that in Lev. iv, 27 (4Q120, fr. 20, 4) the Tetragram (the divine name YHWH) is rendered semi- phonetically as Iao, and is not replaced, as was customary later, by the Greek Kurios (Lord). Among the nineteen minute fragments found in Cave 7 - which contained only Greek texts - two have been identified as relics of Exodus xxviii, 4-7 (7Q1) and the Letter of Jeremiah, verses 43-4 (7Q2). The former is said to be closer to the traditional Hebrew text than to the LXX. Both are dated to about 100 BCE. (B) OTHER GREEK FRAGMENTS (4Q126-7; 7Q3-

219) The remaining two Greek texts in Cave 4 date roughly to the turn of the era. One (4Q126) cannot be identified and the other (4Q127) is either a paraphrase of Exodus, mentioning among others Pharaoh, Moses and Egypt, or possibly an apocryphal account of Israel in Egypt. Seventeen out of the nineteen minute Greek papyrus fragments from Cave 7 have been declared by the editors to be unidentifiable. Yet against all verisimilitude, several of them have generated sensational and even revolutionary claims, especially that they represented the earliest textual examples of the Greek New Testament. The contention originated with a Spanish Jesuit, José O'Callaghan, who in 1972 persuaded himself that these hardly legible scraps derived from six books of the New Testament: the Gospel of Mark iv, 28 (7Q6 1), vi, 48 (7Q15), vi, 52-3 (7Q5), xii, 17 (7Q7); the Acts of the Apostles xxviii, 38 (7Q6 2); 1 Timothy iii, 16, iv, 1, 3 (7Q4); James i, 23-4 (7Q8) and even one of the latest New Testament writings, 2 Peter i, 15 (7Q10). Of these, the case for Mark vi, 52-3 is purported to be the 'strongest'. The real facts are the following. We are dealing with a fragment on which the written area measures 3.3 x 2.3 cm. Letters appear on four lines; these are of unknown length since both the beginning and the end of each line are missing. An unrecognizable trace of another letter is observed at the top of the fragment. In the editio princeps seventeen letters are identified of which only nine are certain. A single complete word has survived: the Greek kai = and! The leading experts in the field, the late C. H. Roberts of Oxford and the German Kurt Aland, unhesitatingly discarded O'Callaghan's theory. Roberts jokingly told me that if he wanted to waste his time, he was sure he would be able to 'demonstrate' that 7Q5 belonged to any ancient Greek text, biblical or non-biblical. Yet this unlikely and clearly unprovable hypothesis was revived in the 1980s by C. P. Thiede and others, only to encounter the same fate of summary dismissal as Father O'Callaghan's a decade or so earlier. For the editio princeps of the 4Q and 7Q material, see P. W. Skehan and E. Ulrich, DJD, IX (Oxford, 1992), 161-97, 219-42; M.

3Baillet et al., DJD,III (Oxford, 1962), 142-6. For the theory that 7Q contains New Testament texts, see J. O'Callaghan, Los papipros griegos de la cueva 7 deQumrân (Madrid, 1974), and C. P. Thiede, The Earliest Gospel Manuscripts (London, 1992); Re-Kindling the Word (Valley Forge, Pa, 1996). For views for and against expressed at a symposium, see B. Mayer, ed., Christen und Christliches inQumran? (Regensburg, 1992). Against the theory, see C. H. Roberts, 'On Some Presumed Papyrus Fragments of the New Testament from Qumran', Journal of Theological Studies 23 (1972), 446-7; K. Aland, 'Neue neutestamentlische Papyri III', New Testament Study 20 (1973-4), 357-81. For the latest authoritative views, see G. Stanton, Gospel Truth? (London, 1995); E. Puech, 'Des fragments grecs de la grotte 7 et le Nouveau Testament?', RB 102 (1995), 570- 84; M.-E. Boismard (the first decipherer of the fragment), 'Apropos de 7Q5 et Mc. 6, 52-53', ibid., 102-4. The Reworked Pentateuch (4Q158, 4Q364-7) Five badly preserved manuscripts have been classified as reworkings of the Pentateuch, i.e. copies of the Torah partly entailing rearrangements of biblical passages and partly incorporating interpretative supplements inserted into the text. The length of the supplement varies from a few words to seven or eight lines, the most significant example being the long, but broken, addition to the Song of Miriam in 4Q365 6a ii, c. Judging from the surviving passages, the original Reworked Pentateuch must have been a very substantial document, probably the longest of all the Qumran Scrolls. All the manuscripts may be dated on palaeographical grounds to the first century BCE. Only those texts which contain more or less intelligible supplements (printed in italics) are included. For the editio princeps of the Reworked Pentateuch, see J. M. Allegro, DJD, V, 1-6 (4Q158) and E. Tov and S. White, DJD, XIII, 187- 351 (4Q364-7).

44Q158, frs. 1-2 (Gen. xxxii, 24-32; Exod. iv, 27-28+Supplement) ... And [J]ac[ob] w[as left a]lone there. And [a man] wrestl[ed with him. When the man did not prevail against Jacob, he touched his thigh; and Jacob's thigh was put out of joint] as he wrestled with him and he seized him. And he said to hi[m, What is your name? ... And he said to him, Jacob. And he said, Your name shall be Israel, for you have striven with God and with] men and have prevailed. And Jacob asked [and] sai[d, Tell me, pray, what is your name. And he said, Why is it that you ask my name, and he bless]ed him there. And he said to him, 'May the Lo[rd] make you fruitful [and multiply] you. [May he grant you kn]owledge and understanding and may he save you from all violence and ... until this day and until everlasting generations. And he went on his way after he had blessed him there. And he ... [And] the sun [rose] upon him as he passed Penuel, limping because of his thigh.... on this day. And he said, You shall not e[at the sinew of the hip which is] upon the two hollows of the thigh until [this day. (Exod. iv) And the Lord said] to Aaron, Go to me[et Moses in the wilderness. So he went and met him at the mountain of God and kissed him. And Moses told Aaron all] the words of the Lord with which he had s[ent] him and all [the signs which he had charged him to do. And] the Lord [spoke] to me saying, When you bring out the [people of Israel] ... to go as slaves and behold these are [four hundred and] thirty (years] ... 4Q364, fr. 3 (Supplement+Gen. xxviii, 6) II you shall see him ... you shall see in peace ... your death. And upon [your] eyes ... [Why should I be bereft of] both of you? (Gen. xxvii, 45) And [Isaac] called [Rebecca his wife and told] her all [these] wor[ds] ... after Jacob her son ... And Esau saw that [Isaac had blessed Jacob and sent him away to] Pa[dan] Aram to take [a wife] from [there] ... 4Q365, fr. 6b, 6a ii, 6c (Exod. xv, 16-21+Supplement+xv, 22-6)

5Fr. 6b ... till [Thy people, 0 Lord], p[ass by, till the people pass by whom thou hast purchased. Thou wilt bring them in, and plant them] on thine own mountain, the place, [0 Lord, which thou hast made] for thine abode, [the sanctuary which thy hands have established]. The Lord will reign for ever and ever. For when [the horses of Pharaoh with his chariots and his horsemen] went [into the sea, the Lo]rd [brought back] the waters of the sea upon them; but the people of Israel walked on dry ground in the midst of the sea. [And the water]s were a wall to them on their right and on their left (cf. Exod. xiv, 22, 29). [And Miriam the prophetess, sister of Aaron], took [a timbrel in her hand; and al]l the women went out after her with [timbrels and dancing. And Miriam sang to them, Sing to the Lord, for he has triumphed gloriously; the horse and his rider he has thrown into the sea]. Fr. 6a ii, 6c ... thou hast despised ... For pride ... Thou art great, a saviour ... The hope of the enemy has perished and ... has stopped ... They have perished in the mighty waters, the enemy ... and lifts up to their height. [Thou hast given a ransom] ... ... [he who ac]ts proudly. And Moses led [Israe]l onward from the sea, and they went to the wilderness of Sh[ur; they went three days and found no water]. They came to Marah, but [they] could [not] drink the water of Marah because

6[it was] bit[ter; therefore it was named Marah]. And the people murmured ag[ainst Moses] saying, What shall we drink? And Moses cried to [the Lord who showed him] a tree, and he threw it into [the wate]r, and the water became sweet. There he made for them a statute and [an ordinance and there he proved them. And he said], If [you will lis]ten di[li]gently [to the v]oice of the Lord your God and do that which is right in his eyes and [give heed to his commandments and judgements, and keep] all his statutes, [I will put none] of the diseases [upon you] which I put on the Egyptians. For I am the Lord, your [heale]r. Fr. 23 (Lev xxii, 42-xxiv, 2+Supplement) You shall dwell [in bo]oths for seven days; all that are native in Israel shall dwell in booths, tha[t your] gen[erations may kno]w that I made your fathers dwell in booths when I brought them out of the land of Egypt; I am the Lord you[r] God. vacat And Moses declared to the people of Israel the appointed feasts of the Lord. vacat And the Lord said to Moses, Command the children of Israel, saying, When you enter the land which I am giving to you as an inheritance, and you dwell upon it securely, you shall bring wood for a burnt-offering and for all the service of [the H]ouse which you shall build for me in the land, to lay it on the altar of burnt-offering, [and] the calves ... for Passover sacrifices and peace-offerings and thank-offerings and free-will offerings and burnt-offerings daily ... and for the doors and for all the service of the House you shall offer ... the festival of Oil, the twel[ve tribes] they shall offer wood ... Those who offer on the first day shall be Levi and ... [on the third day, Reu]ben and Simeon, [and on] the fou[rth] day ...

7A Paraphrase of Genesis and Exodus (4Q422) Nine fragments of a manuscript written in Hasmonaean characters (first half of the first century BCE) contain a paraphrase of Gen. i-iv, vi- ix, judging from disconnected expressions relating to the creation of the world by God's word, to various living creatures, the establishment of man as ruler over the rest of beings, the prohibition against eating from the tree of knowledge and the rebellion against God which led to the flood. Fr. 10 refers to the throwing of Israelite boys into the Nile, the commissioning of Moses, his vision of the burning bush, Moses' and Aaron's encounter with Pharaoh and the plagues which afflicted Egypt. The text can be arranged in three columns. Further unidentified fragments, which are not included here, are numbered from A to T. If the word ywsr in col. 1, line 12 actually means 'inclination', the phrase 'evil inclination' could be the earliest attestation of the rabbinic concept. For the editio princeps, see T. Elgvin and E. Tov, DJD, XIII, 417-41.

8I ... ... [The heavens and the earth and all] their host He made by [His] word. [And God rested on the seventh day from all the work whi]ch He had made. And [His] holy spirit ... [all th]e living and creeping [creatu]res ... [He put man on the ear]th to rule over it and to eat the frui[ts of the ground] ... w[ith]out eating from the tree of kn[owledge of good and evil] ... He rose against Him and they forgot ... with an evil inclination and for deed[s of] ... peace/payment ...

9II ... [save Noah] and [his] wife and the w[ives of his sons from] the waters of the Flood ... God [cl]osed behind them ... the windows of heave[n] op[en]ed under all the heav[en ... for] the waters to rise on the ear[th forty] days and for[ty] nights was [rain] ov[er] the earth ... and in order to know the glory of the Most Hi[gh] ... to reach to Him, He enlightened the heaven ... sign for generatio[ns] of eternity ... [and never more] will a flood [destroy the earth] ... the periods of day and night ... to shine [o]n heaven and earth ... III ... their [s]ons into the rive[r]

10... [And] He sent to them Moses ... in the vision ... in the signs and marvels ... And He sent them to Pharaoh ... plagues ... marvels for Egypt ... and they carried His word to Pharaoh to send away [their people]. But He hardened [his] (Pharaoh's) heart [to] sin so that the m[en of Isra]el might know for eternal gene[rations]. And He changed their [wate]rs to blood. Frogs were in all their land and lice in all their territories, gnats in their houses and they struck all their ... And He smote with pestile[nce all] their flock and their beasts He delivered to de[at]h. He pu[t dark]ness into their land and obscurity into their [hou]ses so that they could not see one another. [And He smote] their land with hail and [their] soil [with] frost to cause [al]l the fruit of nourishment [to perish]. And He brought locust to cover the face of the ea[rth], heavy locust in all their territory to eat everything green in [their] la[nd] ... And God hardened Ph[araoh's] heart so that he should not [dis]miss [them] ... and in order to increase wonders. [And He smote their first-born], the beginning of al[1 their strength] ... The Genesis Apocryphon (IQapGen, IQ20) Found in Cave 1, and partly published by N. Avigad and Y. Yadin (A Genesis Apocryphon,Jerusalem, 1956), IQapGen is an incomplete manuscript with twenty-two surviving columns of Aramaic text (cf. also IQ20). Remains of a further column, 'The Genesis Apocryphon Col. XII', have since been edited by J. C. Greenfield and E. Qimron (Studies in Qumran Aramaic, Abr-Nabrain, Suppl. 3 (1992), 70-77). A preliminary transcription and translation of the rest of the unpublished material, deciphered with the help of advanced infra-red technology, has been issued by M. Morgenstern, E. Qimron and D. Sinan in 'The Hitherto Unpublished Columns of the Genesis Apocryphon', Abr- Nabrain 33 (1995), 3—52. The beginning of the manuscript is missing. But since the sheet starting with col. v is numbered by the Hebrew letter pe, col. x by sade, and col. XVII by qoph, i.e. the seventeenth, eighteenth and nineteenth letters of the Hebrew alphabet, it would seem that the surviving section

11was preceded by sixteen sheets of which only the end of the last one has been preserved (cf. M. Morgenstern, 'A New Clue to the Original Length of the Genesis Apocryphon', JJS 47/2 (1996), 345—7). If so, the story of Noah which begins the existing portion of the scroll must have been preceded by an extensive account of the creation, Adam and Eve, and the Genesis story up to Enoch and Noah. Columns II—V narrate the miraculous birth of Noah (on Noah see also the minute fragments from 1Q19 and 19bis), whose father, Lamech, suspects that his wife has conceived by one of the fallen angels. Her denials fail to convince him and he asks his father, Methuselah, to travel to Paradise and obtain reassurance from his own father, Enoch. Columns VI—XV contain Noah's first-person account of the Flood and of his journeys. Col. x describes Noah's sacrifice after the Flood. Col. XI deals with the covenant between God and Noah with a mention of a ban on eating blood. Col. XII recounts the planting of a vineyard by Noah and his tasting of wine. The badly damaged cols. XIII—XV contain a vision concerning trees and its interpretation. Two further columns (XVI— XVII) deal with the division of the earth among the sons of Noah. Col. XVIII is completely lost. Cols. XIX—XXII, corresponding to Gen. xii—xv, deal with Abraham's journey to Egypt, his return to Canaan, the war against the invading Mesopotamian kings, and the renewal to him of a divine promise of a son. This lively and delightful narrative, largely devoid of sectarian bias, throws valuable light on inter-Testamental Bible interpretation. It is a mixture of Targum, Midrash, rewritten Bible and autobiography. Most scholars assign the manuscript to the late first century BCE or the first half of the first century CE. The composition itself is generally thought to originate from the second century BCE. Its relationship to the mid-second-century Book of Jubilees is generally accepted, but views differ on whether it depends on Jubilees or vice versa. I slightly prefer the theory that in its pre- Qumran version the Genesis Apocryphon precedes Jubilees, which would postulate for the former a date at least as early as the first half of the second century BCE.

12... II Behold, I thought then within my heart that conception was (due) to the Watchers and the Holy Ones... and to the Giants... and my heart

13was troubled within me because of this child. Then I, Lamech, approached Bathenosh [my] wife in haste and said to her, '... by the Most High, the Great Lord, the King of all the worlds and Ruler of the Sons of Heaven, until you tell me all things truthfully, if... Tell me [this truthfully] and not falsely... by the King of all the worlds until you tell me truthfully and not falsely.' Then Bathenosh my wife spoke to me with much heat [and] ... said, 'O my brother, O my lord, remember my pleasure... the lying together and my soul within its body. [And I tell you] all things truthfully.' My heart was then greatly troubled within me, and when Bathenosh my wife saw that my countenance had changed... Then she mastered her anger and spoke to me saying, 'O my lord, O my [brother, remember] my pleasure! I swear to you by the Holy Great One, the King of [the heavens] ... that this seed is yours and that [this] conception is from you. This fruit was planted by you... and by no stranger or Watcher or Son of Heaven... [Why] is your countenance thus changed and dismayed, and why is your spirit thus distressed... I speak to you truthfully.' Then I, Lamech, ran to Methuselah my father, and [I told] him all these things. [And I asked him to go to Enoch] his father for he would surely learn all things from him. For he was beloved, and he shared the lot [of the angels], who taught him all things. And when Methuselah heard [my words... he went to] Enoch his father to learn all things truthfully from him ... his will. He went at once to Parwain and he found him there... [and] he said to Enoch his father, 'O my father, O my lord, to whom I... And I say to you, lest you be angry with me because I come here... VI [I abstained] from injustice and in the womb of her who conceived me I searched for truth. And when I emerged from my mother's womb, I was planted for truth and I lived all my days in truth and walked in the paths of eternal truth. And the Holy One (was) with me ... on my pathways truth sped to warn me off the ... of lie which led to darkness ... and I girded my loins with the vision of truth and wisdom... paths of violence. vacat Then I, Noah, became a man and clung to truth and seized... and I took Amzara, his daughter as my wife. She conceived and bore me three sons [and daughters]. Then I took wives for my sons

14from among my brother's daughters, and I gave my daughters to my brother's sons according to the law of the eternal precept which the Most High [ordained] to the sons of man. vacat And in my days, when according to my reckoning... ten jubilees had been completed, the (moment) came for my sons to take wives for themselves... heaven, I saw in a vision and was explained and made known the action of the sons of heaven and... the heavens. Then I hid this mystery in my heart and explained it to no man. vacat ... to me and a great and... and in a message of the Holy One... and he spoke to me in a vision and he stood before me ... ... and the message of the great Holy One called out to me: 'To you they say, O Noah, ...' and I reckoned the whole conduct of the sons of the earth. I knew and explained all... two weeks. Then the blood which the Giants had spilled.... I was at ease and waited until... the holy ones with the daughters of man... [Then] I, Noah, found grace, greatness and truth ... ... till the gates of heaven... to men and cattle, and wild beasts and birds... VII ... on them; the earth and all that is on it, in the seas and on the mountains ... all the constellations of heaven, the sun, the moon and the stars and the Watchers... ... I shall reward you... vacat the great Holy One. And I rejoiced in the words of the Lord of heaven and I shouted... it ... you all to your Master... the King of all the world for ever and ever until all eternity. vacat ... [until] the ark rested on one of the mountains of Ararat (HWRRT). And eternal fire... And I atoned for the whole earth, all of it. And the beginning of... and I burned the fat on the fire. Secondly, ... I poured out their blood on the base of the altar and I burned all their flesh on the altar. And thirdly the turtledoves... on the altar as an offering.... I put on it fine flour mixed with oil and with incense as a meal offering.... I put salt on all of them. And the smell of my offering rose up to heaven. vacat ... XI ... the mountains and the deserts... ... four... vacat [Then] I, Noah, went out and walked on the earth, through its length and breadth... delight on her in their leaves and in their fruit. And all the land was filled with grass and herbs and grain. Then I blessed the Lord of heaven who made splendid things. He is for ever and praise is his. And I repeated

15the blessing on account of his grace for the earth and on account of his removing and causing to perish from it all those who do violence and wickedness and lies and on account of his rescuing the righteous man ... vacat [God] was revealed to me and [the Lord] of heaven spoke to me and said to me: 'Do not fear, Noah. I shall be with you and with your sons who will be like you for ever... of the earth and rule over them... and over its deserts and its mountains and all that are on them. And behold, I give all of it to you and to your sons to eat the green things and the grass of the earth. But you shall not eat any blood. Your fear and awe... for ever.'... XII ... in the mountains of Ararat (HWRRT). And afterwards I descended... I and my sons and the sons [of my sons] ... for the destruction was great on the earth... after the Flood. To my first son [Shem] was born, to begin with, a son, Arpachshad, two years after the Flood. [And] all the sons of Shem, all of them, [were Ela]m, and Ashur, Arpachshad, Lud and Aram, and five daughters. [And the sons of Ham: Kush and Misrai]n and Put and Canaan, and seven daughters. And the sons of Japhet: Gomer and Magog and Media and Yavan [and Tu]bal and Mashok and Tiras, and four daughters. [And] I began, I and all my sons, to fill the land and I planted a big vineyard on Mount Lubar and in the fourth year it produced wine for me ... [And] when the first festival c[ame], on the first day of the first festival in the ... month... I opened this jar (?) and I began to drink on the first day of the fifth year ... On this day I summoned my sons, my grandsons and all our wives and their daughters, and we assembled together and we went... and I blessed the Lord of heaven, the Most High God, the Great Holy One who saved us from perdition... XIII... they were cutting gold and silver and stones and clay and taking part of them for themselves. I saw the gold and the silver ... iron, and they cut down every tree and took some for themselves. I saw the sun and the moon and the stars cutting and taking some for themselves. ... I turned to see the olive tree and behold, the olive tree was rising upwards and for many hours... many leaves... appeared in them. I observed this olive tree and beheld the abundance of its leaves... they tied to it. And I was greatly amazed by this olive tree and its leaves. I was amazed... the four winds of heaven were blowing

16powerfully and they damaged this olive tree, breaking off its branches and smashing them. First [came] the westerly [wind] and struck it, and shook off its leaves and fruit, and scattered them in every direction. Then... XIV... listen and hear! You are the great cedar... standing before you in a dream on the top of mountains... ... truth. The willow that springs from it and rises towards the heights (these are) three sons... And that which you did see, (namely that) the first willow caught the stump of the cedar... and the wood from it ... will not separate from you all its days. And among its posterity... will be called... will spring a righteous plant... will stand for ever. And that which you did see, (namely that) the willow caught the stump [of the cedar] ... ... the last willow... vacat... part of their branch entered (got entangled with?) the branch of the first (willow), two sons... And that which you did see, (namely that) part of their branch entered the branch of the first... I explained to him the mystery... XV ... And that you did see all of them ... they will go around, the majority of them will be wicked. And that which you did see, (namely that) a man came from the south of the land, with a sickle in his hand, and fire with him ... who will come from the south of the land ... And they will cast wickedness on the fire, all ... And he shall come between ... Four angels ... between all the nations. And all of them will worship and be confounded ... I will explain to you all, in truth. And thus it is written concerning you. And I, Noah, awoke from my sleep and the sun ... XVI ... until the river Tina ... and all the land of the north, all of it, until it reaches ... And this boundary passes by the waters of the Great Sea as far as ... divided by lot to Japhet and his sons to inherit as an eternal inheritance. vacat The second lot came to Shem to inherit, he and his sons, as an eternal inheritance ... the waters of the river Tina ... as far as the river Tina ... to the great Sea of Salt. And this boundary goes as a spring from this bay ... to the east XVII ... And Shem, my son, divided (his inheritance) among his sons. And the first (lot) fell to Elam in the north, by the waters of the river Tigris as far as the Red Sea, whose source is in the north, and it turns to the west to Assyria as far as the Tigris ... And after it to Aram, the

17land between the two rivers, as far as the top of the mountain of Ashur ... [To] ... fell this Mount of the Ox and the portion stretched and went westwards as far as Magog ... east in the north ... this bay which is at the head of three portions by this sea to Arpachshad to the boundary that turns towards the south, all the land watered by the Euphrates, and all ... all the valleys and plains that are between them, and the island that is in the middle of the bay ... to the sons of Gomer ... and Amana as far as the Euphrates ... the portion that his father Noah divided and gave him. vacat Japhet divided (his inheritance) between his sons. He gave the first (lot) to Gomer in the north as far as the river Tina, and afterwards to Magog, and afterwards to Media, and afterwards to Yavan (the Greeks), all the islands that are by Lydia. And (the lot) which is between the bay of Lydia and the second bay, (he gave) to Tubal ... in the land. And to Meshek the sea ... to Tiras ... which is by the portion of the sons of Ham ... vacat ... XVIII ... XIX ... And I said, 'Thou art ...'...'... until now you have not come to the Holy Mountain.' And I (Abram) departed ... and I travelled towards the south ... until I came to Hebron [at the time when Hebron] was being built; and I dwelt there [two years]. Now there was famine in all this land, and hearing that there was prosperity in Egypt I went ... to the land of Egypt ... I [came to] the river Karmon, one of the branches of the River (Nile) ... and I crossed the seven branches of the River ... We passed through our land and entered the land of the sons of Ham, the land of Egypt. And on the night of our entry into Egypt, I, Abram, dreamt a dream; [and behold], I saw in my dream a cedar tree and a palm tree ... men came and they sought to cut down the cedar tree and to pull up its roots, leaving the palm tree (standing) alone. But the palm tree cried out saying, 'Do not cut down this cedar tree, for cursed be he who shall fell [it].' And the cedar tree was spared because of the palm tree and [was] not felled. And during the night I woke from my dream, and I said to Sarai my wife, 'I have dreamt a dream ... [and I am] fearful [because of] this dream.' She said to me, 'Tell me your dream that I may know it.' So I

18began to tell her this dream ... [the interpretation] of the dream ...'... that they will seek to kill me, but will spare you ... [Say to them] of me, "He is my brother", and because of you I shall live, and because of you my life shall be saved ... ' And Sarai wept that night on account of my words ... Then we journeyed towards Zoan, I and Sarai ... by her life that none should see her ... And when those five years had passed, three men from among the princes of Egypt [came at the command] of Pharaoh of Zoan to inquire after [my] business and after my wife and they gave ... goodness, wisdom, and truth. And I exclaimed before them ... because of the famine ... And they came to ascertain ... with much food and drink ... the wine ... (During the party, the Egyptians must have seen Sarai, and on their return they praised her to the king.) XX ...'... and beautiful is her face! How ... fine are the hairs of her head! How lovely are her eyes! How desirable her nose and all the radiance of her countenance ... How fair are her breasts and how beautiful all her whiteness! How pleasing are her arms and how perfect her hands, and how [desirable] all the appearance of her hands! How fair are her palms and how long and slender are her fingers! How comely are her feet, how perfect her thighs! No virgin or bride led into the marriage chamber is more beautiful than she; she is fairer than all other women. Truly, her beauty is greater than theirs. Yet together with all this grace she possesses abundant wisdom, so that whatever she does is perfect (?).' When the king heard the words of Harkenosh and his two companions, for all three spoke as with one voice, he desired her greatly and sent out at once to take her. And seeing her, he was amazed by all her beauty and took her to be his wife, but me he sought to kill. Sarai said to the king, 'He is my brother,' that I might benefit from her, and I, Abram, was spared because of her and I was not slain. And I, Abram, wept aloud that night, I and my nephew Lot, because Sarai had been taken from me by force. I prayed that night and I begged and implored, and I said in my sorrow while my tears ran down: 'Blessed art Thou, O Most High God, Lord of all the worlds, Thou who art Lord and king of all things and who rulest over all the

19kings of the earth and judgest them all! I cry now before Thee, my Lord, against Pharaoh of Zoan the king of Egypt, because of my wife who has been taken from me by force. Judge him for me that I may see Thy mighty hand raised against him and against all his household, and that he may not be able to defile my wife this night (separating her) from me, and that they may know Thee, my Lord, that Thou art Lord of all the kings of the earth.' And I wept and was sorrowful. And during that night the Most High God sent a spirit to scourge him, an evil spirit to all his household; and it scourged him and all his household. And he was unable to approach her, and although he was with her for two years, he knew her not. At the end of those two years the scourges and afflictions grew greater and more grievous upon him and all his household, so he sent for all [the sages] of Egypt, for all the magicians, together with all the healers of Egypt, that they might heal him and all his household of this scourge. But not one healer or magician or sage could stay to cure him, for the spirit scourged them all and they fled. Then Harkenosh came to me, beseeching me to go to the king and to pray for him and to lay my hands upon him that he might live, for the king had dreamt a dream ... But Lot said to him, 'Abram my uncle cannot pray for the king while Sarai his wife is with him. Go, therefore, and tell the king to restore his wife to her husband; then he will pray for him and he shall live.' When Harkenosh had heard the words of Lot, he went to the king and said, 'All these scourges and afflictions with which my lord the king is scourged and afflicted are because of Sarai the wife of Abram. Let Sarai be restored to Abram her husband, and this scourge and the spirit of festering shall vanish from you.' And he called me and said, 'What have you done to me with regard to [Sarai]? You said to me, She is my sister, whereas she is your wife; and I took her to be my wife. Behold your wife who is with me; depart and go hence from all the land of Egypt! And now pray for me and my house that this evil spirit may be expelled from it.' So I prayed [for him] ... and I laid my hands on his [head]; and the scourge departed from him and the evil [spirit] was expelled [from him], and he lived. And the king rose to tell me ... and the king swore an oath

20to me that ... and the king gave her much [silver and gold] and much raiment of fine linen and purple ... And Hagar also ... and he appointed men to lead [me] out [of all the land of Egypt]. And I, Abram, departed with very great flocks and with silver and gold, and I went up from [Egypt] together with my nephew [Lot]. Lot had great flocks also, and he took a wife for himself from among [the daughters of Egypt. I pitched my camp] XXI [in] every place in which I had formerly camped until I came to Bethel, the place where I had built an altar. And I built a second altar and laid on it a sacrifice, and an offering to the Most High God. And there I called on the name of the Lord of worlds and praised the Name of God and blessed God, and I gave thanks before God for all the riches and favours which He had bestowed on me. For He had dealt kindly towards me and had led me back in peace into this land. After that day, Lot departed from me on account of the deeds of our shepherds. He went away and settled in the valley of the Jordan, together with all his flocks; and I myself added more to them. He kept his sheep and journeyed as far as Sodom, and he bought a house for himself in Sodom and dwelt in it. But I dwelt on the mountain of Bethel and it grieved me that my nephew Lot had departed from me. And God appeared to me in a vision at night and said to me, 'Go to Ramath Hazor which is north of Bethel, the place where you dwell, and lift up your eyes and look to the east and to the west and to the south and to the north; and behold all this land which I give to you and your seed for ever.' The next morning, I went up to Ramath Hazor and from that high place I beheld the land from the River of Egypt to Lebanon and Senir, and from the Great Sea to Hauran, and all the land of Gebal as far as Kadesh, and all the Great Desert to the east of Hauran and Senir as far as the Euphrates. And He said to me, 'I will give all this land to your seed and they shall possess it for ever. And I will multiply your seed like the dust of the earth which no man can number; neither shall any man number your seed. Rise and go! Behold the length and breadth of the land, for it is yours; and after you, I will give it to your seed for ever.' And I, Abram, departed to travel about and see the land. I began my journey at the river Gihon and travelled along the coast of the Sea until I came to the Mountain of the Bull (Taurus). Then I travelled from the

21coast of the Great Salt Sea and journeyed towards the east by the Mountain of the Bull, across the breadth of the land, until I came to the river Euphrates. I journeyed along the Euphrates until I came to the Red Sea (Persian Gulf) in the east, and I travelled along the coast of the Red Sea until I came to the tongue of the Sea of Reeds (the modern Red Sea) which flows out from the Red Sea. Then I pursued my way in the south until I came to the river Gihon, and returning, I came to my house in peace and found all things prosperous there. I went to dwell at the Oaks of Mamre, which is at Hebron, north-east of Hebron; and I built an altar there, and laid on it a sacrifice and an oblation to the Most High God. I ate and drank there, I and all the men of my household, and I sent for Mamre, Ornam and Eshkol, the three Amorite brothers, my friends, and they ate and drank with me. Before these days, Kedorlaomer king of Elam had set out with Amrafel king of Babylon, Ariok king of Kaptok, and Tidal king of the nations which lie between the rivers; and they had waged war against Bera king of Sodom, Birsha king of Gomorrah, Shinab king of Admah, Shemiabad king of Zeboim, and against the king of Bela. All these had made ready for battle in the valley of Siddim, and the king of Elam and the other kings with him had prevailed over the king of Sodom and his companions and had imposed a tribute upon them. For twelve years they had paid their tribute to the king of Elam, but in the thirteenth year they rebelled against him. And in the fourteenth year, the king of Elam placed himself at the head of all his allies and went up by the Way of the Wilderness; and they smote and pillaged from the river Euphrates onward. They smote the Refaim who were at Ashteroth Karnaim, the Zumzamim who were at Ammon, the Emim [who were at] Shaveh ha-Keriyyoth, and the Horites who were in the mountains of Gebal, until they came to El Paran which is in the Wilderness. And they returned ... at Hazazon Tamar. The king of Sodom went out to meet them, together with the king [of Gomorrah], the king of Admah, the king of Zeboim, and the king of Bela, [and they fought] a battle in the valley [of Siddim] against Kedorlaomer [king of Elam and the kings] who were with him. But the king of Sodom was vanquished and fled, and the king of Gomorrah fell into the pits ... [And] the king of Elam [carried off] all the riches of

22Sodom and [Gomorrah] ... and they took Lot the nephew XXII of Abram who dwelt with them in Sodom, together with all his possessions. Now one of the shepherds of the flocks which Abram had given to Lot escaped from captivity and came to Abram; at that time Abram dwelt in Hebron. He told him that Lot his nephew had been taken, together with all his possessions, but that he had not been slain and that the kings had gone by the Way of the Great Valley (of the Jordan) in the direction of their land, taking captives and plundering and smiting and slaying, and that they were journeying towards the land of Damascus. Abram wept because of Lot his nephew. Then he braced himself; he rose up and chose from among his servants three hundred and eighteen fighting men trained for war, and Ornam and Eshkol and Mamre went with him also. He pursued them until he came to Dan, and came on them while they were camped in the valley of Dan. He fell on them at night from four sides and during the night he slew them; he crushed them and put them to flight, and all of them fled before him until they came to Helbon which is north of Damascus. He rescued from them all their captives, and all their booty and possessions. He also delivered Lot his nephew, together with all his possessions, and he brought back all the captives which they had taken. When the king of Sodom learned that Abram had brought back all the captives and all the booty, he came out to meet him; and he went to Salem, which is Jerusalem. Abram camped in the valley of Shaveh, which is the valley of the king, the valley of Beth-ha-Kerem; and Melchizedek king of Salem brought out food and drink to Abram and to all the men who were with him. He was the Priest of the Most High God. And he blessed Abram and said, 'Blessed be Abram by the Most High God, Lord of heaven and earth! And blessed be the Most High God who has delivered your enemies into your hand!' And Abram gave him the tithe of all the possessions of the king of Elam and his companions. Then the king of Sodom approached and said to Abram, 'My lord Abram, give me the souls which are mine, which you have delivered from the king of Elam and taken captive, and you may have all the possessions.'

23Then said Abram to the king of Sodom, 'I raise my hand this day to the Most High God, Lord of heaven and earth! I will take nothing of yours, not even a shoe-lace or shoe-strap, lest you say, Abram's riches come from my possessions! I will take nothing but that which the young men with me have eaten already, and the portion of the three men who have come with me. They shall decide whether they will give you their portion.' And Abram returned all the possessions and all the captives and gave them to the king of Sodom; he freed all the captives from this land who were with him, and sent them all back. After these things, God appeared to Abram in a vision and said to him, 'Behold, ten years have passed since you departed from Haran. For two years you dwelt here and you spent seven years in Egypt, and one year has passed since you returned from Egypt. And now examine and count all you have, and see how it has grown to be double that which came out with you from Haran. And now do not fear, I am with you; I am your help and your strength. I am a shield above you and a mighty safeguard round about you. Your wealth and possessions shall multiply greatly.' But Abram said, 'My Lord God, I have great wealth and possessions but what good shall they do to me? I shall die naked; childless shall I go hence. A child from my household shall inherit from me. Eliezer son ... shall inherit from me.' And He said to him, 'He shall not be your heir, but one who shall spring [from your body shall inherit from you].' Genesis Commentaries (4Q252—254a) From this non-continuous paraphrase of Genesis, four sections are reproduced here, two of which are of sectarian inspiration. The composition of the first fragment attempts to adapt the chronology of the biblical Flood story to the solar calendar of the Qumran Community. Along more general lines, it seeks also to explain certain peculiarities of the scriptural text, e.g., why, despite Ham's disrespect to his father, it was not he, but his son Canaan, who was cursed by Noah. The exegesis attested in this section is distinct from the pesber,

24and resembles partly the style of the 'rewritten Bible' such as the Genesis Apocryphon, and partly the 'plain', or peshat, interpretation of the rabbis. The subject of the second excerpt is the blessing of Judah, i.e. the tribe in which David originated. The sectarian commentator (see the mention of the 'men of the Community' in line 5) emphasizes that the royal power will belong for ever to the descendants of David, thereby implying that all non-Davidic rulers, such as the contemporary Hasmonaean priest-kings, unlawfully occupy the throne. If so, the composition best fits to the first half of the first century BCE. Only four tiny fragments of 4Q253 are extant. Fr. I mentions the ark. Fr. 3, col. I contains a citation from Mal. iii, 16—18. This is the only translatable excerpt. Fifteen mostly insignificant scraps of 4Q254 correspond partly to the Noah story and partly to the blessings of the Patriarchs. Only frs. I and 5 can be translated. Fr. I, lines 2—4 overlap with 4Q252 ii, 1.6. For the editio princeps, see G. J. Brooke, DJD, XXII, 185—212, 217—36. 4Q252, fr. I (Gen. vi, 3—XV, 17) I [In the] four hundred and eightieth year of the life of Noah came their end (that of antediluvian mankind). And God said, My spirit shall not abide in man for ever and their days sball be determined to be one hundred and twenty years (Gen. vi, 3) - until the end of the Flood. And the waters of the Flood arrived on the earth in the six hundredth year of the life of Noah, in the second month— on the first day of the week —on the seventeenth (of the month). On that day all the fountains of the great deep burst forth and the windows of the heavens were opened. And rain fell on the earth forty days and forty nights (vii, 11— 12) until the twenty-sixth day of the third month, the fifth day of the week. And the waters prevailed upon the [ea]rth a hundred and fifty days (vii, 24)—until the fourteenth day of the seventh month, the third day of the week. And at the end of a hundred and fifty days, the waters had abated— two days, the fourth and the fifth day, and on the sixth day - the ark came to rest on the mountains of Hurarat (or: Turarat),

25on the seventeenth day of the seventh month (viii, 3—4). And the waters [con]tinued to abate until the [ten]th month, the first day of (the month) - the fourth day of the week—and the tops of the mountains appeared (viii, 5). At the end of forty days ― after the tops of the mountains had been seen ― Noah [op]ened the window of the ark (viii, 6) - on the tenth day of the ele[venth] month. And he sent forth the dove to see if the waters had subsided (viii, 8), but she did not find a resting-place and returned to him to the ark (viii, 9). He waited an[other] seven days and again sent her forth (viii, 10). She came back to him with a plucked olive leaf in her beak (viii, 10—11)—[this is the twenty-]fourth [day] of the eleventh month, the first day of the wee[k. And Noah knew that the waters had subsided] from the earth (viii, II). At the end of another [seven days, he sent forth the dove and it did not] return again (viii, 12)—this is the f[irst] day [of the twelfth] month, [the first day] of the week. At the end of three [weeks after Noah had sent forth the dov]e which did not return to him any more, the wa[ters] dried up [from the earth and] Noah removed the covering of the ark and looked, and behold, the face of the ground was dry (viii, 13). This was the first day of the first month. [And it happened] II in the six hundred and first year of the life of Noah, on the seventeenth day of the second month that the earth was dry (viii, 14) - on the first day of the week. On that day Noah went forth from the ark (viii, 18) at the end of a full year of three hundred and sixty-four days, on the first day of the week, on the seven[teenth] of the second month vacat on and six vacat Noah from the ark at the appointed time of a full year vacat And Noah awoke from his wine and knew what his youngest son had done to him. And he said, Cursed be Canaan; a slave of slaves shall he be to [his] bro[thers] (ix, 24—5). But he did not curse Ham but only his son, for God had blessed the sons of Noah. And let him dwell in the tents of Shem (ix, 27). He gave the land to Abram, his beloved. [Terah] was one hundred and for[t]y-five years old when he went forth from Ur of the Chaldees and came to Haran (xi, 31). Now Ab[ram was se]venty years old and for five years Abram dwelt in Haran. And afterwards Abram went forth to the land of Canaan. Six[ty-five years] ... the heifer and the ram and the go[at] (xv, 9) ... [the torch of] ] fire when it pass[ed over] (xv, 17) ...

26(Gen. xxxvi, 12) IV Timna was the concubine of Eliphaz son of Esau and she bore to him Amalek (xxxvi, 12), whom Saul smo[te] as He said to Moses, In the last days you will wipe out the memory of Amalek from under the heaven (Deut. xxv, 19). Blessings of Jacob (Gen. xlix, 3) Reuben, you are my first-born, the firstfruit of my strength, pre- eminent in pride and pre-eminent in power. Unstable as water, you shall not have pre-eminence; you went up to your fathers bed; you have defiled his couch ... (xlix, 3) Its interpretation is that he rebuked him because he slept with Bilhah, his concubine, and he said, '[My] first-[born] ... (ibid.) Reuben is the firstfruit ...' (Gen. xlix, 10) V The sceptre [shall not] depart from the tribe of Judah ... [xlix, 10]. Whenever Israel rules, there shall [not] fail to be a descendant of David upon the throne (Jer. xxxiii, 17). For the ruler's staff (xlix, 10) is the Covenant of kingship, [and the clans] of Israel are the divisions,95 until the Messiah of Righteousness comes, the Branch of David. For to him and his seed is granted the Covenant of kingship over his people for everlasting generations which he is to keep... the Law with the men of the Community, for... it is the assembly of the men of... Genesis Commentary C (4Q254) Fr. I (Gen. ix, 24—5)

27... which he says ... on the doors and ... [And Noah awoke from his wine] and knew what [his youngest son had done to him. And he said, Cursed be Canaan;] a slave of slaves [shall he be to his brothers] (Gen. ix, 24—5). Frs. 5—6 (Gen. xlix, 15—17) And he bowed [his shoulder to bear and became] a slave [at forced labour] (Gen. xlxi, 15). Its interpretation... [Dan shall judge] his [peo]ple as on[e] of the tr[ibes of Israel.] Dan shall be a ser[pent in the way, a vip]er by the pa[th that bites] the horse's hee[Is] (Gen. xlix, 15-17) ... Genesis Commentary D (4Q254a) Fr.3 [On] the seventeenth of the month... Noah went out of the ark at the appointed time year by year ... [a ra]ven and it went out and returned to announce to the 1[ast] generations ... before him, for the ra[ven] went out and retur[ned] ... Commentaries on Isaiah (4Q 11611-5, 3Q4) Translatable fragments of four commentaries on Isaiah were discovered in Cave 4 (4QpIsaa—d = 4Q161—4). A fifth (4QpIsae = 4QI65) is too mutilated to be rendered into English. The first document alludes to the defeat of the Kittim and expounds the renowned messianic prophecy of Isa. xi. It is related to 4Q285 (cf. p. 188). The second and the third deal with the Jewish opponents of the sect. The

28fourth, relying on Isa. liv, identifies the Community as the New Jerusalem. They may all be assigned to the first century BCE. A small fragment from Cave 3 (3Q4) represents a commentary on Isa. i, I, but with no continuous text. For the editio princeps, see J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, DJD, V, 11—30. Frs. 8-10 ... [and the tallest tre]es [shall be cut down and] the lofty [shall be felled] with the axe, and Lebanon through a powerful one shall fall (x, 33—4). [Its interpretation concerns the Kit]tim who shall crush the house of Israel and the humble ... all the nations and the valiant shall be dismayed and [their] he[arts] shall melt. [And that which he said, The tallest] trees shall be cut down, these are the valiant of the Kit[tim] ... [And that which he sa]id. The heart of the forest shall be felled with the axe, th[ey] ... for the war of the Kittim. And Lebanon through a po[werful one shall fall (x, 34). Its interpretation concerns the] Kittim who will be given into the hand of his great one ... when he flees from be[fore Is]rael ... vacat [And there shall come forth a rod from the stem ofJesseand a Branch shall grow out of its roots. And the spirit of the Lord shall rest upon him, the spirit of wisdom and understanding, the spirit of counsel and might, the spirit of knowledge and of thefearof the Lord. And his delight shall be in the fear of the Lord. He shall not judge by what his eyes see, or pass sentence by what his ears hear; he shall judge the poor righteously and shall pass sentence justly on the humble of the earth] (xi, 1—3). [Interpreted, this concerns the Branch] of David who shall arise at the end [of days] ... God will uphold him with [the spirit of might, and will give him] a throne of glory and a crown of [holiness] and many- coloured garments ... [He will put a sceptre] in his hand and he shall rule over all the [nations]. And Magog ... and his sword shall judge [all] the peoples.

29And as for that which he said, He shall not [judge by what his eyes see] or pass sentence by what his ears hear: interpreted, this means that ... [the Priests] ... As they teach him, so will he judge; and as they order, [so will he pass sentence]. One of the Priests of renown shall go out, and garments of... shall be in his hands ... 4Q162 [For ten acres of vineyard shall produce only one bath, and a homer of seed shall yield but one ephah] (v, 10). Interpreted, this saying concerns the last days, the devastation of the land by sword and famine. At the time of the Visitation of the land there shall be Woe to those who rise early in the morning to run after strong drink, to those who linger in the evening until wine inflames them. They have zither and harp and timbrel and flute and wine at their feasts, but they do not regard the work of the Lord or see the deeds of His hand. Therefore my people go into exile for want of knowledge, and their noblemen die of hunger and their multitude is parched with thirst. Therefore Hell has widened its gullet and opened its mouth beyond measure, and the nobility of Jerusalem and her multitude go down, her tumult and he who rejoices in her (v, 11—14). These are the Scoffers in Jerusalem who have despised the Law of the Lord and scorned the word of the Holy One of Israel. Therefore the wrath of the Lord was kindled against His people. He stretched out His hand against them and smote them; the mountains trembled and their corpses were like sweepings in the middle of the streets. And [His wrath] has not relented for all these things [and His hand is stretched out still] (v, 24—5). This is the congregation of Scoffers in Jerusalem ... 4Q163 Thus said the Lord, the Holy One of Israel, 'You shall be saved by returning and resting; your strength shall be in silence and trust.' But

30you would not. You [said], 'No. We will flee upon horses and will ride on swift steeds.' Therefore your pursuers shall be speedy also. A thousand shall flee at the threat of one; at the threat of five you shall flee [till] you are left like a flagstaff on top of a mountain and like a signal on top of a hill. Therefore the Lord waits to be [gracious to] you; therefore He exalts Himself to have mercy on you. For the Lord is a God of justice. How blessed are all those who wait for him! (xxx, 15—18). This saying, referring to the last days, concerns the congregation of those who seek smooth things in Jerusalem ... [who despise the] Law and do not [trust in God] ... As robbers lie in wait for a man ... they have despised [the words of] the Law ... O people of Zion [who live in Jerusalem, you shall weep no more. At the sound of] your crying [He will be gracious to you; He will answer you] when He [hears it. Although the Lord gives you bread of oppression and water of distress, your Teacher] shall be hidden [no more and your eyes shall see your Teacher] ... (XXX, 19—20). 4Q164 Behold, I will set your stones in antimony (liv, IIb). [Interpreted, this saying concerns] ... all Israel is like antimony surrounding the eye.

31And I will lay your foundations with sapphires (liv, IIC). Interpreted, this concerns the Priests and the people who laid the foundations of the Council of the Community ... the congregation of His elect (shall sparkle) like a sapphire among stones.

32[And I will make] all your pinnacles [of agate] (liv, 12a). Interpreted, this concerns the twelve [chief Priests] who shall enlighten by judgement of the Urim and Tummim ... which are absent from them, like the sun with all its light, and like the moon ...

33[And all your gates of carbuncles] (liv, 12b). Interpreted, this concerns the chiefs of the tribes of Israel... Commentaries on Hosea (4Q166—7) Two fragmentary manuscripts (4Q166—7) include exegeses of Hosea. In the first, the unfaithful wife is the Jewish people led astray by her lovers, the Gentiles. The second refers cryptically to 'the furious young lion', mentioned also in the Commentary on Nahum, and to 'the last Priest who shall ... strike Ephraim'. For the editio princeps, see J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, DJD, V, 31—2. 4Q166 II [She knew not that] it was I who gave her [the new wine and oil], who lavished [upon her silver] and gold which they [used for Baal] (ii, 8). Interpreted, this means that [they ate and] were filled, but they forgot God who ... They cast His commandments behind them which He had sent [by the hand of] His servants the Prophets, and they listened to those who led them astray. They revered them, and in their blindness they feared them as though they were gods.

34Therefore I will take back my corn in its time and my wine [in its season]. I will take away my wool and my flax lest they cover [her nakedness]. I will uncover her shame before the eyes of [her] lovers [and] no man shall deliver her from out of my hand (ii, 9—10). Interpreted, this means that He smote them with hunger and nakedness that they might be shamed and disgraced in the sight of the nations on which they relied. They will not deliver them from their miseries.

35I will put an end to her rejoicing, [her feasts], her [new] moons, her Sabbaths, and all her festivals (ii, II). Interpreted, this means that [they have rejected the ruling of the Law, and have] followed the festivals of the nations. But [their rejoicing shall come to an end and] shall be changed into mourning. I will ravage [her vines and her fig trees], of which she said, 'They are my wage [which my lovers have given me'.] I will make of them a thicket and the [wild beasts] shall eat them ... (ii, 12). 4Q167, fr. 2 ... and your wound shall not be healed (v, 13). [Its] in[terpretation concerns] ... the furious young lion ...

36For I will be like a lion [to E]ph[ra]im [and like a young lion to the house of Judah] (v, 14a). [Its interpretation con]cerns the last Priest who shall stretch out his hand to strike Ephraim ...

37[I will go and come back to my place un]til they [will] feel guilty and seek my face; in their distress they will seek me eagerly (v, 15)-Its interpretation is that God [has hid]den His face from ... and they did not listen ... Frs. 7-9 [But they, like Adam, have b]roken the Covenant (vi, 7). [Its] interpretation ... they have forsaken God and walked according to the decrees [of the Gentiles] ... Commentary on Micah (1Q]14,4Q168)

38Tiny fragments from Cave I (1Q14) represent an exposition of Micah. Although the prophet's words are intended to castigate both Samaria and Jerusalem, the Qumran commentator interprets Samaria as alluding to the 'Spouter of Lies', the enemy of the sect, but relates Judah and Jerusalem to the Teacher of Righteousness and his Community. Further fragments of Micah iv, 8—12 are given the title 'Commentary on Micah (?)', in 4Q168 (DJD, V, 36), but since neither the word pesher, nor any interpretative material is extant, the manuscript may be biblical. For the editio princeps, see J. T. Milik, DJD, 1,77—80.

39[All this is] for the transgression [of Jacob and for the sins of the House of Israel. What is the transgression of Jacob?] Is it not [Samaria? And what is the high place of Judah? Is it not Jerusalem? I will make of Samaria a ruin in the fields, and of Jerusalem a plantation of vines] (i, 5—6). Interpreted, this concerns the Spouter of Lies [who led the] Simple [astray].

40And what is the high place of Judah? [Is it not Jerusalem?] (i, 5). [Interpreted, this concerns] the Teacher of Righteousness who [expounded the law to] his [Council] and to all who freely pledged themselves to join the elect of [God to keep the Law] in the Council of the Community, who shall be saved on the Day [of Judgement] ... Commentary on Nahum (4Q169) Substantial remains of a Nahum Commentary were retrieved from Cave 4 (4Q169). They cover parts of chapters i and ii of the biblical book, and the first fourteen verses of chapter iii. Their historical significance has been discussed in Chapter III (pp. 55—62). It is worthy of note that the commentator employs not only cryptograms (Kittim, furious young lion, etc.), but the actual names of two Greek

41kings (Demetrius and Antiochus). Reference to 'the furious young lion' as one who 'hangs men alive' shows that 'hanging', probably a synonym for crucifixion, was practised as a form of execution. It is also legislated for in the Temple Scroll (LXIV, 6—13), where it is the capital punishment reserved for traitors. In biblical law, by contrast, only the dead body of an executed criminal is to be hanged, that is, displayed in public as an example (Deut. xxi, 21). On palaeographical grounds the manuscript is dated to the second half of the first century BCE. For the editio princeps, see J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, DJD, V, 371—42. Frs. 1—2 [In whirlwind and storm is his way and] cloud is the d[ust of his feet (i, 3). Its interpretation] ... The [whirlwinds and the storm]s are (from) the fir[mam]ents of his heaven and of his earth which he has cre[ated].

42He rebu[kes] the sea and dri[es it up] (i, 4a). Its [int]erpretation: the sea is all the K[ittim who are] ... to execut[e] judgement against them and destroy them from the face [of the earth,] together with [all] their [com]manders whose dominion shall be finished.

43[Bashan and] Carmel have withered and the sprout of Lebanon withers (i, 4b). Its interpretation... [will per]ish in it, the summit of wickedness for the ... Carmel and to his commanders. Lebanon and the sprout of Lebanon are [the priests, the sons of Zadok and the men of] their [counc]il and they shall perish from before... the elect... [a]11 the inhabitants of the world. The mo[untains quake before him] and the hills heave and the earth [is lifted up] before him, and [the world and all that dwell in it. Who can stand before his wrath? And who can arise] against his furious anger? (i, 5—6a).

44[Its] in[terpretation] ...

45I [Where is the lions' den and the cave of the young lions?] (ii, II). [Interpreted, this concerns] ... a dwelling-place for the ungodly of the nations.

46Whither the lion goes, there is the lion's cub, [with none to disturb it] (ii, IIb). [Interpreted, this concerns Deme]trius king of Greece who sought, on the counsel of those who seek smooth things, to enter Jerusalem. [But God did not permit the city to be delivered] into the hands of the kings of Greece, from the time of Antiochus until the coming of the rulers of the Kittim. But then she shall be trampled under their feet ...

47The lion tears enough for its cubs and it chokes prey for its lionesses (ii, 12a). [Interpreted, this] concerns the furious young lion who strikes by means of his great men, and by means of the men of his council.

48[And chokes prey for its lionesses; and it fills] its caves [with prey] and its dens with victims (ii, 12a—b). Interpreted, this concerns the furious young lion [who executes revenge] on those who seek smooth things and hangs men alive, ... formerly in Israel. Because of a man hanged alive on [the] tree, He proclaims, 'Behold I am against [you, says the Lord of Hosts'].

49[ 7 will burn up your multitude in smoke], and the sword shall devour your young lions. I will [cut off] your prey [from the earth] (ii, i 3). [Interpreted] ... your multitude is the bands of his army ... and his young lions are ... his prey is the wealth which [the priests] of Jerusalem have [amassed], which ... Israel shall be delivered ... [And the voice of your messengers shall no more be heard] (ii, 13b). [Interpreted] II ... his messengers are his envoys whose voice shall

50no more be heard among the nations.

51Woe to the city of blood; it is full of lies and rapine (iii, Ia—b). Interpreted, this is the city of Ephraim, those who seek smooth things during the last days, who walk in lies and falsehood.

52The prowler is not wanting, noise of whip and noise of rattling wheel, prancing horse and jolting chariot, charging horsemen, flame and glittering spear, a multitude of the slain and a heap of carcasses. There is no end to the corpses; they stumble upon their corpses (iii, Ic—3). Interpreted, this concerns the dominion of those who seek smooth things, from the midst of whose assembly the sword of the nations shall never be wanting. Captivity, looting, and burning shall be among them, and exile out of dread for the enemy. A multitude of guilty corpses shall fall in their days; there shall be no end to the sum of their slain. They shall also stumble upon their body of flesh because of their guilty counsel.

53Because of the many harlotries of the well-favoured harlot, the mistress of seduction, she who sells nations through her harlotries and families through her seductions (iii, 4). Interpreted, this concerns those who lead Ephraim astray, who lead many astray through their false teaching, their lying tongue, and deceitful lips - kings, princes, priests, and people, together with the stranger who joins them. Cities and families shall perish through their counsel; honourable men and rulers shall fall through their tongue's [decision].

54Behold, I am against you - oracle of the Lord of Hosts - and you will lift up your skirts to your face and expose your nakedness to the nations and your shame to the kingdoms (iii, 5). Interpreted ... cities of the east. For the skirts are ... III and the nations shall ... among them their filthy idols.

55I will cast filth upon you and treat you with contempt and render you despicable, so that all who look upon you shall flee from you (iii, 6— 7a). Interpreted, this concerns those who seek smooth things, whose evil deeds shall be uncovered to all Israel at the end of time. Many shall understand their iniquity and treat them with contempt because of their guilty presumption. When the glory of Judah shall arise, the simple of Ephraim shall flee from their assembly; they shall abandon those who lead them astray and shall join Israel.

56They shall say, Nineveh is laid waste; who shall grieve over her? Whence shall I seek comforters for you? (iii, 7b). Interpreted, this concerns those who seek smooth things, whose council shall perish and whose congregation shall be dispersed. They shall lead the assembly astray no more, and the simple shall support their council no more.

57Are you better than Amon which lay among the rivers? (iii, 8a). Interpreted, Amon is Manasseh, and the rivers are the great men of Manasseh, the honourable men of...

58Which was surrounded by waters, whose rampart was the sea and whose walls were waters? (iii, 8b). Interpreted, these are her valiant men, her almighty warriors.

59Ethiopia [and Egypt] were her [limitless] strength (iii, 9a). [Interpreted] ...

60[Put and the Libyans were your helpers] (iii, 9b). IV Interpreted, these are the wicked of [Judah], the House of Separation, who joined Manasseh.

61Yet she was exiled; she went into captivity. Her children were

62crushed at the top of all the streets. They cast lots for her honourable men, and all her great men were bound with chains (iii, 10). Interpreted, this concerns Manasseh in the final age, whose kingdom shall be brought low by [Israel ... ] his wives, his children, and his little ones shall go into captivity. His mighty men and honourable men [shall perish] by the sword.

63[You shall be drunk] and shall be stupefied (iii, IIa). Interpreted, this concerns the wicked of E[phraim ... ] whose cup shall come after Manasseh ... [You shall also seek] refuge in the city because of the enemy (iii, i Ib). Inter[preted, this concerns ... ] their enemies in the city ...

64[All your strongholds shall be] like fig trees with newly ripe figs (iii, 12a). Commentary on Habakkuk (IQpHab) This well-preserved and detailed exposition of the first two chapters of the Book of Habakkuk comes from Cave I and was published in 1950 (M. Burrows, The Dead Sea Scrolls of St Mark's Monastery, I, New Haven, 1950, pls. LV—LXI). The palaeographical dating of the manuscript (30—1 BCE) has been confirmed by radiocarbon tests (120—5 BCE; cf. above, pp. 12 —13). The Habakkuk Commentary is one of the main sources for the study of Qumran origins, as well as Essene Bible exegesis and the sect's theology regarding prophecy. The historical and doctrinal aspects of the document are analysed in Chapters III and IV.

65I [Oracle of Habakkuk the prophet. How long, O Lord, shall I cry] for help and Thou wilt not [hear]? (i, 1—2). [Interpreted, this concerns the beginning] of the [final] generation ...

66[Or shout to Thee 'Violence', and Thou wilt not deliver?] (i, 2b) ...

67[Why dost Thou cause me to see iniquity and to look upon trouble? Desolation and violence are before me] (i, 3). ... God with oppression and unfaithfulness ... they rob riches.

68[There is quarrelling and contention] (i, 3b).

69So the law is weak [and justice never goes forth] (i, 4a-b). [Interpreted] this concerns those who have despised the Law of God

70[For the wicked encompasses] the righteous (i, 4c). [The wicked is the Wicked Priest, and the righteous] is the Teacher of Righteousness... [So] justice goes forth [perverted] (i, 4d). ...

71[Behold the nations and see, marvel and be astonished; for I accomplish a deed in your days, but you will not believe it when] II told (i, 5). [Interpreted, this concerns] those who were unfaithful together with the Liar, in that they [did] not [listen to the word received by] the Teacher of Righteousness from the mouth of God. And it concerns the unfaithful of the New [Covenant] in that they have not believed in the Covenant of God [and have profaned] His holy Name. And likewise, this saying is to be interpreted [as concerning those who] will be unfaithful at the end of days. They, the men of violence and the breakers of the Covenant, will not believe when they hear all that [is to happen to] the final generation from the Priest [in whose heart] God set [understanding] that he might interpret all the words of His servants the Prophets, through whom He foretold all that would happen to His people and [His land].

72For behold, I rouse the Chaldeans, that [bitter and hasty] nation (i,

736a). Interpreted, this concerns the Kittim [who are] quick and valiant in war, causing many to perish. [All the world shall fall] under the dominion of the Kittim, and the [wicked ... ] they shall not believe in the laws of [God ... ]

74[Who march through the breadth of the earth to take possession of dwellings which are not their own] (i, 6b). ... III they shall march across the plain, smiting and plundering the cities of the earth. For it is as He said, To take possession of dwellings which are not their own.

75They are fearsome and terrible; their justice and grandeur proceed from themselves (i, 7). Interpreted, this concerns the Kittim who inspire all the nations with fear [and dread]. All their evil plotting is done with intention and they deal with all the nations in cunning and guile.

76Their horses are smifter than leopards and fleeter than evening wolves. Their horses step forward proudly and spread their wings; they fly from afar like an eagle avid to devour. All of them come for violence; the look on their faces is like the east wind (i, 8—9a). [Interpreted, this] concerns the Kittim who trample the earth with their horses and beasts. They come from afar, from the islands of the sea, to devour all the peoples like an eagle which cannot be satisfied, and they address [all the peoples] with anger and [wrath and fury] and indignation. For it is as He said, The look on their faces is like the east wind.

77[They heap up] captives [like sand] (i, 9b).

78IV They scoff [at kings], and princes are their laughing-stock (i, 10a). Interpreted, this means that they mock the great and despise the venerable; they ridicule kings and princes and scoff at the mighty host.

79They laugh at every fortress; they pile up earth and take it (i, 10b). Interpreted, this concerns the commanders of the Kittim who despise the fortresses of the peoples and laugh at them in derision. To capture them, they encircle them with a mighty host, and out of fear and terror they deliver themselves into their hands. They destroy them because of the sins of their inhabitants.

80The wind then sweeps on and passes; and they make of their strength their god (i, II). Interpreted, [this concerns] the commanders of the Kittim who, on the counsel of [the] House of Guilt, pass one in front of the other; one after another [their] commanders come to lay waste the earth. [And they make of their strength their god]: interpreted, this concerns [ ... all] the peoples ...

81[Art Thou not from everlasting, O Lord, my God, my Holy One? We shall not die.] Thou hast ordained them, [O Lord], V for judgement; Thou hast established them, 0 Rock, for chastisement. Their eyes are too pure to behold evil; and Thou canst not look on distress (i, 12 —13a). Interpreted, this saying means that God will not destroy His people by the hand of the nations; God will execute the judgement of the nations by the hand of His elect. And through their chastisement all the wicked of His people shall expiate their guilt who keep His commandments in their distress. For it is as he said, Too pure of eyes to behold evil: interpreted, this means that they have not lusted after their eyes during the age of wickedness. O traitors, why do you stare and stay silent when the wicked swallows up one more righteous than he? (i, 13b). Interpreted, this concerns the House of Absalom and the members of its council who were silent at the time of the chastisement of the Teacher of Righteousness and gave him no help against the Liar who flouted the Law in the midst of their whole [congregation].

82Thou dealest with men like the fish of the sea, like creeping things, to rule over them. They draw [them all up with a fish-hook], and drag them out with their net, and gather them in [their seine. Therefore they sacrifice] to their net. Therefore they rejoice [and exult and burn incense to their seine; for by them] their portion is fat [and their sustenance rich] (i, 14—16).

83... VI the Kittim. And they shall gather in their riches, together with all their booty, like the fish of the sea. And as for that which He said, Therefore they sacrifice to their net and burn incense to their seine: interpreted, this means that they sacrifice to their standards and worship their weapons of war. For by them their portion is fat and their sustenance rich: interpreted, this means that they divide their yoke and their tribute ― their sustenance - over all the peoples year by year, ravaging many lands.

84Therefore their sword is ever drawn to massacre nations mercilessly (i, 17). Interpreted, this concerns the Kittim who cause many to perish by the sword - youths, grown men, the aged, women and children - and who even take no pity on the fruit of the womb.

85I will take my stand to watch and will station myself upon my fortress. I will watch to see what He will say to me and how [He will answer] my complaint. And the Lord answered [and said to me, 'Wtite down the vision and make it plain] upon the tablets, that [he who reads] may read it speedily (ii, 1—2).

86... VII and God told Habakkuk to write down that which would happen to the final generation, but He did not make known to him when time would come to an end. And as for that which He said, That he who reads may read it speedily: interpreted this concerns the Teacher of Righteousness, to whom God made known all the mysteries of the words of His servants the Prophets. For there shall be yet another vision concerning the appointed

87time. It shall tell of the end and shall not lie (ii, 3a). Interpreted, this means that the final age shall be prolonged, and shall exceed all that the Prophets have said; for the mysteries of God are astounding.

88If it tarries, wait for it, for it shall surely come and shall not be late (ii, 3b). Interpreted, this concerns the men of truth who keep the Law, whose hands shall not slacken in the service of truth when the final age is prolonged. For all the ages of God reach their appointed end as he determines for them in the mysteries of His wisdom.

89Behold, [his soul] is puffed up and is not upright (ii, 4a). Interpreted, this means that [the wicked] shall double their guilt upon themselves [and it shall not be forgiven] when they are judged ...

90[But the righteous shall live by his faith] (ii, 4b). VIII Interpreted, this concerns all those who observe the Law in the House of Judah, whom God will deliver from the House of Judgement because of their suffering and because of their faith in the Teacher of Righteousness.

91Moreover, the arrogant man seizes wealth without halting. He widens his gullet like Hell and like Death he has never enough. All the nations are gathered to him and all the peoples are assembled to him. Will they not all of them taunt him and jeer at him saying, 'Woe to him who amasses that which is not his! How long will he load himself up with pledges?' (ii, 5—6). Interpreted, this concerns the Wicked Priest who was called by the name of truth when he first arose. But when he ruled over Israel his heart became proud, and he forsook God and betrayed the precepts for the sake of riches. He robbed and amassed the riches of the men of violence who rebelled against God, and he took the wealth of the peoples, heaping sinful iniquity upon himself. And he lived in the ways of abominations amidst every unclean defilement.

92Shall not your oppressors suddenly arise and your torturers awaken; and shall you not become their prey? Because you have plundered many nations, all the remnant of the peoples shall plunder you (ii, 7—8a). [Interpreted, this concerns] the Priest who rebelled [and violated] the precepts [of God ... to command] IX his chastisement by means of the judgements of wickedness. And they inflicted horrors of evil diseases and took vengeance upon his body of flesh. And as for that which He said, Because you have plundered many nations, all the remnant of the peoples shall plunder you: interpreted this concerns the last Priests of Jerusalem, who shall amass money and wealth by plundering the peoples. But in the last days, their riches and booty shall be delivered into the hands of the army of the Kittim, for it is they who shall be the remnant of the peoples.

93Because of the blood of men and the violence done to the land, to the city, and to all its inhabitants (ii, 8b). Interpreted, this concerns the Wicked Priest whom God delivered into the hands of his enemies because of the iniquity committed against the Teacher of Righteousness and the men of his Council, that he might be humbled by means of a destroying scourge, in bitterness of soul, because he had done wickedly to His elect.

94Woe to him who gets evil profit for his house; who perches his nest high to be safe from the hand of evil! You have devised shame to your house: by cutting off many peoples you have forfeited your own soul. For the [stone] cries out [from] the wall [and] the beam from the woodwork replies (ii, 9—11). [Interpreted, this] concerns the [Priest] who ... X that its stones might be laid in oppression and the beam of its woodwork in robbery. And as for that which He said, By cutting off many peoples you have forfeited your own soul: interpreted this concerns the condemned House whose judgement God will pronounce in the midst of many peoples. He will bring him thence for judgement and will declare him

95guilty in the midst of them, and will chastise him with fire of brimstone.

96Woe to him who builds a city with blood and founds a town upon falsehood! Behold, is it not from the Lord of Hosts that the peoples shall labour for fire and the nations shall strive for naught? (ii, 12— 13). Interpreted, this concerns the Spouter of Lies who led many astray that he might build his city of vanity with blood and raise a congregation on deceit, causing many thereby to perform a service of vanity for the sake of its glory, and to be pregnant with [works] of deceit, that their labour might be for nothing and that they might be punished with fire who vilified and outraged the elect of God. For as the waters cover the sea, so shall the earth be filled with the knowledge of the glory of the Lord (ii, 14). Interpreted, [this means that] when they return ... XI the lies. And afterwards, knowledge shall be revealed to them abundantly, like the waters of the sea.

97Woe to him who causes his neighbours to drink; who pours out his venom to make them drunk that he may gaze on their feasts (ii, 15) Interpreted, this concerns the Wicked Priest who pursued the Teacher of Righteousness to the house of his exile that he might confuse him with his venomous fury. And at the time appointed for rest, for the Day of Atonement, he appeared before them to confuse them, and to cause them to stumble on the Day of Fasting, their Sabbath of repose.

98You have filled yourself with ignominy more than with glory. Drink also, and stagger! The cup of the Lord's right hand shall come round to you and shame shall come on your glory (ii, 16). Interpreted, this concerns the Priest whose ignominy was greater than his glory. For he did not circumcise the foreskin of his heart, and he walked in the ways of drunkenness that he might quench his thirst. But the cup of the wrath of God shall confuse him, multiplying his ... and the pain of ...

99[For the violence done to Lebanon shall overwhelm you, and the destruction of the beasts] XII shall terrify you, because of the blood of men and the violence done to the land, the city, and all its inhabitants (ii, 17). Interpreted, this saying concerns the Wicked Priest, inasmuch as he shall be paid the reward which he himself tendered to the Poor. For Lebanon is the Council of the Community; and the beasts are the simple of Judah who keep the Law. As he himself plotted the destruction of the Poor, so will God condemn him to destruction. And as for that which He said, Because of the blood of the city and the violence done to the land: interpreted, the city is Jerusalem where the Wicked Priest committed abominable deeds and defiled the Temple of God. The violence done to the land: these are the cities of Judah where he robbed the Poor of their possessions.

100Of what use is an idol that its maker should shape it, a molten image, a fatling of lies? For the craftsman puts his trust in his own creation when he makes dumb idols (ii, 18). Interpreted, this saying concerns all the idols of the nations which they make so that they may serve and worship them. But they shall not deliver them on the Day of Judgement.

101Woe [to him who says] to wood, 'Awake', and to dumb [stone, 'Arise'! Can such a thing give guidance? Behold, it is covered with gold and silver but there is no spirit within it. But the Lord is in His holy Temple]: XIII let all the earth be silent before Him! (lii, 19—20). Interpreted, this concerns all the nations which serve stone and wood. But on the Day of Judgement, God will destroy from the earth all idolatrous and wicked men. Commentary on Zephaniah (1Q15, 4Q170)

102The relics of a Zephaniah Commentary from Cave 1, covering Zeph. i, 18-ii, 2 and using palaeo-Hebrew letters for the divine name, are badly mutilated. A lengthy quotation is followed by the word pesher (interpretation), and the expression 'land of Judah' implies that the divine anger spoken of by the prophet was understood to be directed against the Judaeans. Two small fragments from Cave 4 represent two broken lines of Zephaniah i, 12—13; a couple of words which are not biblical precede the introductory formula, pishro (its interpretation), but the actual commentary is lost. The two excerpts are presented in the order of the biblical text. For the editio princeps, see D. Barthélemy and J. T. Milik, DJD, I, 80; J. M. Allegro, DJD, V, 42. 4Q170 The Lord [will not do goo]d, nor will He do ill. And [their goods shall be pl]undered and [their houses laid waste.] ... cannot ... (Zeph. i, 12— 13)-Its interpretation [concerns] ... 1Q15 ... [in the fire of His] jealous [wrath, all the earth] shall be consumed; [for a full, yea, sudden end He will make of all the inha]bitants of the earth (Zeph. i,18). Come together [and hold an assembly, 0 shameless nation, before you are driven away; like] chaff, a day has passed away [before there comes upon you] the fierce anger of the Lord (ii, 1—2). The interpretation [of this saying concerns all the inhabitants] of the land of Judah ... Commentary on Malachi (Previously Genesis Commentary B)

103The document reproduces Malachi iii, 16—18, followed by the beginning of its interpretation. For the editio princeps, see G. J. Brooke, DJD, XXII, 212—5.

104[Then those fearing the Lord spoke with one another,] and he heeded [and heard them and a book of memorial was written before him of those who feared the Lord and thought of his name.] They shall be mine, [says the Lord of hosts, my special possession on the day when I act, and I will spare] them as [a man spares his son who serves him. Then once more you shall distinguish] between the righteous and the wicked, [between one who serves God and one who does not serve him (Mal. iii, 16—18). Its interpretation] ... the righteousness and over ... Commentary on Psalms (1Q16, 4Q171, 4Q173) Cave I has preserved a few scraps of a commentary on Psalms Ivii and Ixviii. Most of them are too small for a coherent translation, but frs. 9—10 mention the Kittim (Romans), the name of the final enemy. More importantly, two manuscripts with Herodian script from Cave 4 (4Q171, 4Q173) include interpretations of Psalms. The bulk of the text is devoted to Psalm xxxvii, in which the destiny of the just and the wicked is expounded in connection with the story of the sect and its

105opponents, and in particular the struggle between the Teacher of Righteousness and the Wicked Priest. Recognizable remains of Psalms xlv and cxxvii also survive. For the editio princeps, see J. T. Milik, DJD, I, 81—2; J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, DJD, V, 42—53. 4Q171 I ... [Be sil]ent before [the Lord and] long for him, and be not heated against the successful, the man who [achi]eves his plans (xxxvii, 7a). Its interpretation concerns the Liar who has led astray many by his lying words so that they chose frivolous things and heeded not the interpreter of knowledge in order to ... II they shall perish by the sword and famine and plague.

106Relent from anger and abandon wrath. Do not be angry; it tends only to evil, for the wicked shall be cut off (8-9a). Interpreted, this concerns all those who return to the Law, to those who do not refuse to turn away from their evil. For all those who are stubborn in turning away from their iniquity shall be cut off. But those who wait for the Lord shall possess the land (9b). Interpreted, this is the congregation of His elect who do His will.

107A little while and the wicked shall be no more; I will look towards his place but he shall not be there (10). Interpreted, this concerns all the wicked. At the end of the forty years they shall be blotted out and no [evil] man shall be found on the earth.

108But the humble shall possess the land and delight in abundant peace (II). Interpreted, this concerns [the congregation of the] Poor who shall accept the season of penance and shall be delivered from all the snares of Belial. Afterwards, all who possess the earth shall delight and prosper on exquisite food.

109The wicked plots against the righteous and gnashes [his teeth a]t him. [The Lo]rd laughs at him, for He sees that his day is coming (12 —13). Interpreted, this concerns the violent of the Covenant who are in the House of Judah, who have plotted to destroy those who practise the law, who are in the Council of the Community. And God will not forsake them to their hands.

110The wicked draw the sword and bend their bow to bring down the poor and needy and to slay the upright of way. Their sword shall enter their own heart and their bows shall be broken (14-15). Interpreted, this concerns the wicked of Ephraim and Manasseh, who shall seek to lay hands on the Priest and the men of his Council at the time of trial which shall come upon them. But God will redeem them from out of their hand. And afterwards, they shall be delivered into the hand of the violent among the nations for judgement.

111vacat Better is the little which the righteous has than the abundance of many wicked people (16). [Interpreted, this concerns ... those who practise the law ... For the ar[ms of the wicked shall be broken, but] the Lor[d upholds the righteous] (17).

112[The Lord knows the days of the perfect and their portion shall be for ever. In evil times they shall not be shamed] (18-19a). III ... to the penitents of the desert who, saved, shall live for a thousand generations and to whom all the glory of Adam shall belong, as also to their seed for ever.

113And in the days of famine they shall be [satisfi]ed, but the wicked shall perish (19b-20a). Interpreted, this [means that] He will keep them alive during the famine and the time of humiliation, whereas many shall perish from

114famine and plague, all those who have not departed [from there] to be with the Congregation of His elect.

115And those who love the Lord shall be like the pride of pastures (20b). Interpreted, [this concerns] the congregation of His elect, who shall be leaders and princes... of the flock among their herds.

116Like smoke they shall all of them vanish away (20C). Interpreted, [this] concerns the princes [of wickedness] who have oppressed His holy people, and who shall perish like smoke [blown away by the wind].

117The wicked borrows and does not repay, but the righteous is generous and gives. Truly, those whom He [blesses shall possess] the land, but those whom He curses [shall be cut off] (21-2). Interpreted, this concerns the congregation of the Poor, who [shall possess] the whole world as an inheritance. They shall possess the High Mountain of Israel [for ever], and shall enjoy [everlasting] delights in His Sanctuary. [But those who] shall be cut off, they are the violent [of the nations and] the wicked of Israel; they shall be cut off and blotted out for ever.

118The steps of the man are confirmed by the Lord and He delights in all his ways; though [he stumble, he shall not fall, for the Lord shall support his hand] (23-4). Interpreted, this concerns the Priest, the Teacher of [Righteousness whom] God chose to stand before Him, for He established him to build for Himself the congregation of...

119I [have been young] and now am old, yet [I have] not [seen the righteous] forsaken, or his children begging bread. He is [ever] giving liberally and lending and [his] children become a blessing (25-6). Interpreted, this concerns ...

120IV The unjust shall be destroyed for ever and the children of the wi[cked shall be cut off] (28). These are the violent ...

121The righteou[s shall possess the land and dwell] upon it for ever (29). [Interpreted, this concerns] ...

122[The mouth of the righteous utters] wisdom and his tongue speaks [justice. The law of God is in his heart, his steps will not slip (30-31). Interpreted, it concerns ... ] ...

123The wicked watches out for the righteous and seeks [to slay him. The Lord will not abandon him into his hand or] let him be condemned when he is tried (3 2-3). Interpreted, this concerns the Wicked [Priest] who [watched the Teacher of Righteousness] that he might put him to death [because of the ordinance] and the law which he sent to him. But God will not aban[don him and will not let him be condemned when he is] tried. And [God] will pay him his reward by delivering him into the hand of the violent of the nations, that they may execute upon him [judgement].

124[Wait for the Lo]rd and keep to His way, and [He] will exalt you to possess the land; you will lo[ok] on the destruction of the wicked (34). [Interpreted, it concerns ... ] who will see the judgement of wickedness and with his elect will rejoice in the heritage of truth.

125I [have seen] a wicked man overbearing ... [like a cedar of Lebanon]. I passed before [him, and], lo, he was [no more], though I [sought him,] he could not [be found (35-6). Interpreted, it concerns] the Liar who ... against the e[lec]t of God, [and sought] to bring to an end ...

126[Mark the blameless man and behold] the upright, [for there is

127posterity for the ma]n of peace (37). Its interpretation con[cerns ... ] peac[e].

128But the transgressors shall be altogether destroyed; the post [erity of the wicked shall be cut off (38). Interpreted, it concerns ... ] will perish and be cut off from the midst of the congregation of the Community ... ... he delivers them from the wicked [and saves them, because they take refuge in him (40). Interpreted, it concerns ... ] God will save them and deliver them from the w[icked ... ]

129For the choirmaster: according to [the lil¡]es. [For the sons of Korah. Maskil. A song oflove(Ps. xlv, I). Its interpretation is that th]ey are the seven divisions of the penitents of Is[rael ... ].

130My he[art] is astir with a good word. I speak of my work to the King (xlv, I). [Its interpretation ... spir]it of holiness for ... books of...

131And my tongue is the pen of [a speedy scribe (xlv, I). Its interpretation] concerns the Teacher of [Righteousness] ... God with an answering tongue ... 4Q173 [... Vai]nis it for you to rise early and lie down late. You shall eat the bread of toil; [he shall feed those who love him in their] sleep (cxxvii, 2). [Its interpretation is th]at they shall seek ... Teacher of Righteousness ... [pri]est at the end of the a[ge] ...

Commentary on an Unidentifiable Text (4Q183)

1Three fragments of a biblical commentary, indicated by the introductory formula, 'And that which he said', which is common in pesher literature, have been published by J. M. Allegro. None of the quotations has been preserved, but the phraseology and the historical allusions recall the Habakkuk Commentary and other pesharim. The divine names 'God' (el) and 'the Lord' (Yhwh) are written in palaeo- Hebrew script. Only fr. 2 is suitable for translation. 4Q172 (DJD, V, 50- 1) is also an amalgam of commentaries on unidentified texts, but the fragments are so small as to preclude altogether any translation. For the editio princeps, see J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, DJD, V, 81-2.

2II their enemies. And they profaned their sanctuary... from them. And they rose for battles one [with another] against his covenant. God saved and delivered... goodwill. And he gave them a single heart to wal[k in the way of his truth. And they despised] all the wealth of wickedness and kept apart from the wa[y of wickedness] ... the erring spirit and with a tongue of truth ... And they atoned for their iniquity through [their] strokes... their iniquity. vacat And that which he said, ... Florilegium or Midrash on the Last Days (4Q174) This collection of texts assembled from 2 Samuel and the Psalter, and

3combined with other scriptural passages, serves to present the sectarian doctrine identifying the Community with the Temple, and to announce the coming of the two Messiahs, the 'Branch of David' and the 'Interpreter of the Law'. Originating from Cave 4 (4Q174) and known also as 'Florilegium', it probably belongs to the late first century BCE. For the editio princeps, see J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, DJD, V, 53-7.

4I ... [I will appoint a place for my people Israel and will plant them that they may dwell there and be troubled no more by their] enemies. No son of iniquity [shall afflict them again] as formerly, from the day that [I set judges] over my people Israel (2 Sam. vii, 10). This is the House which [He will build for them in the] last days, as it is written in the book of Moses, In the sanctuary which Thy hands have established, O Lord, the Lord shall reign for ever and ever (Exod. xv, 17-18). This is the House into which [the unclean shall] never [enter, nor the uncircumcised,] nor the Ammonite, nor the Moabite, nor the half-breed, nor the foreigner, nor the stranger, ever; for there shall My Holy Ones be. [Its glory shall endure] for ever; it shall appear above it perpetually And strangers shall lay it waste no more, as they formerly laid waste the Sanctuary of Israel because of its sin. He has commanded that a Sanctuary of men be built for Himself, that there they may send up, like the smoke of incense, the works of the Law.

5And concerning His words to David, And I [willgive] you [rest] from all your enemies (2 Sam. vii, 11), this means that He will give them rest from all the children of Belial who cause them to stumble so that they may be destroyed [by their errors,] just as they came with a [devilish] plan to cause the [sons] of light to stumble and to devise against them a wicked plot, that [they might become subject] to Belial in their [wicked] straying.

6The Lord declares to you that He will build you a House (2 Sam. vii, 11c).1 I will raise up your seed after you (2 Sam. vii, 12). I will

7establish the throne of his kingdom [for ever] (2 Sam. vii, 13). [I willbe] his father and he shall be my son (2 Sam. vii, 14). He is the Branch of David who shall arise with the Interpreter of the Law [to rule] in Zion [at the end] of time. As it is written, I will raise up the tent of David that is fallen (Amos ix, 11). That is to say, the fallen tent of David is he who shall arise to save Israel.

8Explanation of How blessed is the man who does not walk in the counsel of the wicked (Ps. i, 1). Interpreted, this saying [concerns] those who turn aside from the way [of the people] as it is written in the book of Isaiah the Prophet concerning the last days, It came to pass that [the Lord turned me aside, as with a mighty hand, from walking in the way of ] this people (Isa. viii, 11). They are those of whom it is written in the book of Ezekiel the Prophet, The Levites [strayed far from me, following] their idols (Ezek. xliv, Prophet, are the sons of Zadok who [seek their own] counsel and follow 10). They are the sons of Zadok who [seek their own] counsel and follow [their own inclination] apart from the Council of the Community.

9[Why] do the nations [rage] and the peoples meditate [vanity? Why do the kings of the earth] rise up, [and the] princes take counsel together against the Lord and against [His Messiah]? (Ps. ii, 1). Interpreted, this saying concerns [the kings of the nations] who shall [rage against] the elect of Israel in the last days. 11 This shall be the time of the trial to co[me concerning the house of J]udah so as to perfect ... Belial, and a remnant of the people shall be left according to the lot (assigned to them), and they shall practise the whole Law... Moses. This is the time of which it is written in the book of Daniel the Prophet: But the wicked shall do wickedly and shall not understand, but the righteous shall purify themselves and make themselves white (Dan. xii, 10). The people who know God shall be strong. They are the masters who understand... Testimonia or Messianic Anthology

10(4Q175) This short document from Cave 4 (4Q175), dating to the early first century BCE and similar in literary style to the Christian Testimonia or collections of messianic proof-texts, includes five quotations arranged in four groups. Only the last of them is followed by an interpretation. The first group consists of two texts from Deuteronomy referring to the prophet similar to Moses; the second is an extract from a prophecy of Balaam about the Royal Messiah; the third is a blessing of the Levites and, implicitly, of the Priest-Messiah. The last group opens with a verse from Joshua, which is then expounded by means of a quotation from the sectarian Psalms of Joshua (cf. 4Q379 below, p. 547). Most experts hold that the commentator, bearing in mind the biblical passage, is alluding to three characters: a father ('an accursed man') and his two sons. However, the verb 'arose' in the second sentence is in the singular, and it would seem correct to interpret this text as referring to the two brothers only. For the editio princeps, see J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, DJD, V, 57-60.

11The Lord spoke to Moses saying: You have heard the words which this people have spoken to you; all they have said is right. Othat their heart were always like this, to fear me and to keep my commandments always, that it might be well with them and their children for ever! (Deut. v, 28-9). I will raise up for them a Prophet like you from among their brethren. I will put my words into his mouth and he shall tell them all that I command him. And I will require a reckoning of whoever will not listen to the words which the Prophet shall speak in my Name (Deut. xviii, 18-19).

12He took up his discourse and said: Oracle of Balaam son of Beor. Oracle of the man whose eye is

13penetrating. Oracle of him who has heard the words of God, who knows the wisdom of the Most High and sees the vision of the Almighty, who falls and his eyes are opened. I see him but not now. I behold him but not near. A star shall come out of Jacob and a sceptre shall rise out of Israel; he shall crush the temples of Moab and destroy all the children of Sheth (Num. xxiv, 15-17).

14And of Levi he said: Give Thy Tummim to Levi, and Thy Urimto Thy pious one whom Thou didst test at Massah, and with whom Thou didst quarrel at the waters of Meribah; who said to his father and mother, 'I know you not', and who did not acknowledge his brother, or know his sons. For they observed Thy word and kept Thy Covenant. They shall cause Thy precepts to shine before Jacoband Thy Law before Israel. They shall send up incense towards Thy nostrils and place a burnt-offering upon Thine altar. Bless his power, O Lord, and delight in the work of his hands. Smite the loins of his adversaries and let his enemies rise no more (Deut. xxxiii, 8-11).

15When Joshua had finished offering praise and thanksgiving, he said: Cursed be the man who rebuilds this city! May he lay its foundation on his first-born, and set its gate upon his youngest son (Josh. vi, 26). Behold, an accursed man, a man of Belial, has risen to become a fowler's net to his people, and a cause of destruction to all his neighbours. And [his brother] arose [and ruled in li]es, both being instruments of violence. They have rebuilt [this city and have set up for it] a wall and towers to make of it a stronghold of ungodliness in Israel, and a horror in Ephraim and in Judah ... They have committed an abomination in the land, and a great blasphemy among the children [of Jacob. They have shed blood] like water upon the ramparts of the daughter of Zion and within the precincts of Jerusalem. Ordinances or Commentaries on Biblical Law

16(4Q159, 4Q513-14) Three manuscripts from Cave 4 (4Q159, 4Q513-14), and probably belonging to the turn of the era, include reinterpretations of various biblical laws. In the first statute, the interpreter deduces from Deut. xxiii, 25—6 that a poor man may eat ears of corn in the field of another person, but is not allowed to take any home. On a threshing-floor, however, he may both eat and gather provisions for his family. Next follows a statute referring to the half-shekel tax contributed by every Israelite aged twenty to the upkeep of the place of worship. Later Jewish tradition interpreted this passage as instituting a yearly tax to be paid by every male Israelite (cf. Neh. x, 32; Matth. xvii, 24-7; see also the treatise Shekalim or Shekel Dues in the Mishnah). The Qumran ordinance, however, insists on one single payment, thereby complying with the scriptural rule and at the same time withholding regular support from the Temple in Jerusalem. Here 4Q159 and 4Q513, frs. 1—2, partly overlap. The third statute (4Q159, frs. 2-4) deals with the prohibition against selling an Israelite as a slave (cf. Lev. xxv, 39-46); with cases to be judged by a court of twelve magistrates; with the forbidden interchange of garments between men and women (cf. Deut. xxii, 5); and with the charge laid by a husband against his wife that she was not a virgin when he married her (Deut. xxii, 13-21). Finally, 4Q513, frs. 2-4, and 4Q514 legislate on purity rules. For the editio princeps, see J. M. Allegro and A. A. Anderson, DJD, V, 6-9; M. Baillet, DJD, VII, 287-98. 4Q159 II ... [And] anyone who has made of it a threshing-floor or a winepress, any destitute [Israelite] who goes into a threshing-floor may eat there and gather for himself and for [his] hou[sehold. But should he walk

17among corn standing in] the field, he may eat but may not bring it to his house to store it. Concerning... the money of valuation that a man gives as ransom for his life, it shall be half [a shekel... ] He shall give it only once in his life. Twenty gerahs make one shekel according to [the shekel of the sanctuary (cf. Exod. xxx, 12-13) ... ] For the 600,000, one hundred talents; for the 3,000, half a talent (=30 minahs); [for the 500, five minahs;] and for the 50, half a minah, (which is) twenty-five shekels (cf. Exod. xxxviii, 25-6) 4Q159, frs. 2-4 ... before Isra[el]. They shall [n]ot serve Gentiles among foreign[ers, for He has brought them out from the land of] Egypt, and He has commanded concerning them that none shall be sold as a slave... [t]en men and two priests, and they shall be judged before these twelve... spoke in Israel against a person, they shall inquire in accordance with them. Whosoever shall rebel..., shall be put to death for he has acted wilfully. Let no man's garment be worn by a woman all [the days of her life]. Let him [not] be covered with a woman's mantle, nor wear a woman's tunic, for this is an abomination. If a man accuses a virgin of Israel (that she is not a virgin), if this is when he marries her, let him say so and they shall examine her [concerning her] trustworthiness. If he has not lied concerning her, she shall be put to death. But if he has humiliated her [false]ly, he shall be fined two minahs, [and] shall [not] divorce her all his life.... 4Q513 ... [Tw]enty [gerahs] make a shekel according to the she[kel of the sanctuary ...] The half-[shekel consists of twe]lv[e me]ahs, [two] zuzim ... also sources of uncleanness. The ephah and the bath, also sources of uncleanness, have the same capacity, (viz.) ten 'issarons (=tenths).

18A bath of wine corresponds to an ephah of corn. The seah consists of three and one-third 'issarons, sources of uncleanness, and the tithe of the ephah [is the 'issaron]. 4Q514 I He shall not eat... for all the unclean... to count for [him seven days of wa]shing and he shall wash and cleanse on the d[a]y of [his] purification. Whoever has not begun his purification from his 'fo[un]t' [shall not eat]. [Neither shall he eat] in his first (degree of) uncleanness. All those temporarily unclean shall wash on the day of their [pu]rification, and cleanse (their garments) with water and shall become clean. Afterwards they may eat their bread according to the law of purity. Whoever has not begun his purification from his 'fount' shall not eat (again?) in his first (degree of) uncleanness. Whoever is still in his first (degree of) uncleanness shall not eat. All those temporarily [un]clean shall on the day of their pu[rification] wash and cleanse (their garments) with water and they shall be clean. Afterwards they may eat their bread according to the l[aw. None] shall e[at] or drink with whomsoev[er] prepares... The Heavenly Prince Melchizedek (11Q13) A striking mid-first-century BCE document, composed of eleven fragments from Cave 11 and centred on the mysterious figure of Melchizedek, was first published by A. S. van der Woude in 1965. It takes the form of an eschatological midrash in which the proclamation of liberty to the captives at the end of days (Isa. lxi, 1) is understood as being part of the general restoration of property during the year of

19Jubilee (Lev. xxv, 13), seen in the Bible (Deut. xv, 2) as a remission of debts. The heavenly deliverer is Melchizedek. Identical with the archangel Michael, he is the head of the 'sons of Heaven' or 'gods of Justice' and is referred to as elohim and el. The same terminology occurs in the Songs for the Holocaust of the Sabbath. These Hebrew words normally mean 'God', but in certain specific contexts Jewish tradition also explains elohim as primarily designating a 'judge'. Here Melchizedek is portrayed as presiding over the final Judgement and condemnation of his demonic counterpart, Belial/Satan, the Prince of Darkness, elsewhere also called Melkiresha' (cf. pp. 391, 570). The great act of deliverance is expected to occur on the Day of Atonement at the end of the tenth Jubilee cycle. This manuscript sheds valuable light not only on the Melchizedek figure in the Epistle to the Hebrews vii, but also on the development of the messianic concept in the New Testament and early Christianity. For the editio princeps, see F. García Martinez, E. J. C. Tigchelaar and A. S. van der Woude, DJD, XXIII, 221-41. Frs. 1-4 II... And concerning that which He said, In [this] year ofJubilee [each of you shall return to his property (Lev. xxv, 13); and likewise, And this is the manner of release:] every creditor shall release that which he has lent [to his neighbour. He shall not exact it of his neighbour and his brother], for God's release [has been proclaimed] (Deut. xv, 2). [And it will be proclaimed at] the end of days concerning the captives as [He said, To proclaim liberty to the captives (Isa. lxi, 1). Its interpretation is that He] will assign them to the Sons of Heaven and to the inheritance of Melchizedek; f[or He will cast] their [lot] amid the po[rtions of Melchize]dek, who will return them there and will proclaim to them liberty, forgiving them [the wrong-doings] of all their iniquities. And this thing will [occur] in the first week of the Jubilee that follows the nine Jubilees. And the Day of Atonement is the e[nd of the] tenth

20[Ju]bilee, when all the Sons of [Light] and the men of the lot of Mel[chi]zedek will be atoned for. [And] a statute concerns them [to prov]ide them with their rewards. For this is the moment of the Year of Grace for Melchizedek. [And h]e will, by his strength, judge the holy ones of God, executing judgement as it is written concerning him in the Songs of David, who said, ELOHIM has taken his place in the divine council; in the midst of the gods he holds judgement (Psalms lxxxii, 1). And it was concerning him that he said, (Let the assembly of the peoples) return to the height above them; EL (god) will judge the peoples (Psalms vii, 7-8). As for that which he s[aid, How long will you] judge unjustly and show partiality to the wicked? Selah (Psalms lxxxii, 2), its interpretation concerns Belial and the spirits of his lot [who] rebelled by turning away from the precepts of God to ... And Melchizedek will avenge the vengeance of the judgements of God... and he will drag [them from the hand of] Belial and from the hand of all the sp[irits of] his [lot]. And all the 'gods [of Justice'] will come to his aid [to] attend to the de[struction] of Belial. And the height is ... all the sons of God... this ... This is the day of [Peace/Salvation] concerning which [God] spoke [through Isa]iah the prophet, who said, [How] beautiful upon the mountains are the feet of the messenger who proclaims peace, who brings good news, who proclaims salvation, who says to Zion: Your ELOHIM [reigns] (Isa. lii, 7). Its interpretation; the mountains are the prophets... and the messenger is the Anointed one of the spirit, concerning whom Dan[iel] said, [Until an anointed one, a prince (Dan. ix, 25)] ... [And he who brings] good [news] , who proclaims [salvation]: it is concerning him that it is written... [To comfort all who mourn, to grant to those who mourn in Zion] (Isa. lxi, 2-3). To comfort [those who mourn: its interpretation], to make them understand all the ages of t[ime] ... In truth ... will turn away from Belial... by the judgement[s] of God, as it is written concerning him, [who says toZion] ; your ELOHIM reigns. Zion is ..., those who uphold the Covenant, who turn from walking [in] the way of the people. And your ELOHIM is [Melchizedek, who will save them from] the hand of Belial. As for that which He said, Then you shall send abroad the trump[et in] all the land (Lev. xxv, 9) ...